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Middle Ages The earliest practical machines, the and , first appeared in the during the , in what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, by the 9th century AD.

Modern era The application of the steam engine allowed coke to be substituted for charcoal in iron making, lowering the cost of iron, which provided engineers with a new material for building bridges.

, Erzurum Aylin 22 Y.

There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.

, Ankara 2 Can 20 Y.

, Kocaeli Kaan 30 Y.

The were built using three of the six simple machines, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, to create structures like the.

Links in the History of Engineering and Technology from Tudor Times.

Rosakis, Ares Chair, Division of Engineering and Applied Science.